Positive Reinforcement (R+) Glossary of Terms

Positive Reinforcement Tools & Terms

The way we use Positive Reinforcement to train animals today comes directly from the science of Learning Theory, which has been intensively studied for over a century. Unfortunately, some of the long words and complicated terms used by scientists have persisted into the training vocabulary. Most of the time, they are “big words” that make simple concepts seem far more intimidating than they really are. We try to give everyday examples to help explain.

Arousal – Physiological and/or emotional activation. Arousal itself isn’t good or bad, it will vary with circumstances and the behavior. Some activities are low arousal, such as a horse dozing, versus high arousal activities such as galloping in a race or bolting in fear.

Classical Conditioning – an association between events that is learned without conscious or deliberate behavior on the animal’s part. The most well-known example is Pavlov’s dogs drooling at the sound of a bell before the food appeared. Because the sound of the bell always occurred just before the food arrived, the dogs were “classically” conditioned to the bell as a predictor of food.

Criteria – a standard to be met in a given behavior at a given time. For example: how high, how far, how long. This is an important concept in shaping new behaviors, as having clear criteria helps the trainer determine what to mark and reinforce. (Singular: criterion)

Cue – a specific signal that predicts reinforcement is available if a certain behavior is performed. When your phone rings, it is a cue for you. You know what behavior to perform on your phone. Your reinforcement is hearing the voice on the other end. Undersaddle aids like hand, seat, or leg are examples of cues. We deliberately train the cues we want to use, but be aware that cues can develop whether or not we intend them.

DRI – Differential Reinforcement of an Incompatible Behavior – A training strategy in which an unwanted behavior diminishes due to preferentially rewarding a behavior that cannot be performed at the same time. For instance, if the trainer wishes to diminish or extinguish the behavior of a horse holding their head too high to reach, the incompatible behavior of holding the head low is selectively reinforced.

Extinction Burst – a temporary “burst” of trying harder at a previously reinforced behavior when the behavior no longer receives a reward. If the reinforcement ceases entirely, eventually the behavior is abandoned. See Discourage Stall Banging

Intermittent Reinforcement – when a behavior is reinforced or rewarded inconsistently and unpredictably. This can lead to very persistent behavior that is difficult to extinguish. For instance, if an Extinction Burst is occurring, and the behavior is accidentally rewarded, it becomes more unlikely that the behavior will eventually be abandoned. See Discourage Stall Banging

Liberty Leading – when a horse chooses to be directed and led by a trainer without physical restraint such as a halter, lead rope, bridle, reins, or other equipment.

Marker – a consistent, learned signal that predicts a reward is coming; may also be referred to as a “bridge”, “bridge signal” or “secondary reinforcer.” A marker develops through repeated association with a reward (see Classical Conditioning). Many different types of markers can be conditioned, but a clicker is common in training dogs and other animals—one reason that Positive Reinforcement is often called “clicker training.” We typically use a verbal marker, as our hands are often occupied when handling and riding horses..

Negative Reinforcement (R-) – something aversive is removed to increase a behavior. Negative Reinforcement functions through successful avoidance of the aversive; that is, a horse learns to avoid being kicked by trotting promptly on light leg pressure. Sometimes known as “Pressure-and-Release” training.

Negativity Bias – a term that describes the tendency to pay the most attention to what is threatening or unwanted. This evolutionary trait may have kept our ancestors safe from “lions and tigers,” but a focus on what’s wrong can obscure possibilities and new solutions.

Operant Behaviors – actions under the control of the learner, done on purpose. The word “operant” describes how the animal operates within an environment to meet its needs.

Operant Conditioning – a process where an animal or person learns that a specific behavior done in response to a specific stimulus (cue) will result in a predictable consequence. You learn how to operate your smart phone through a process of responding to different sounds in different ways, and discovering the results. A certain “ding” means a text; a different sound means a phone call. Once you learn these cues, you don’t have to stop and think consciously how to respond.

Positive Reinforcement – something desirable is added to increase a behavior; provides an opportunity; R+. Sometimes referred to as reward-based training.

Primary Reinforcer – a reinforcer that is biologically important and is sought naturally without any learning, i.e., air, food, water, etc.; also called an “unconditioned stimulus”. Food is a useful primary reinforcer in training because it is a powerful motivator and convenient to handle for the trainer.

PtP – Priority to Positive – a set of principles and overall training approach developed to guide equestrians in applying Positive Reinforcement in a practical way across all traditional equestrian pursuits.

Reverse Round Pen (RRP) – a liberty leading tool pioneered by Hannah Weston of Connection Training, where the trainer is on the inside of a circular pen and the horse is at liberty on the outside. The horse voluntarily chooses to respond to the trainer’s cues. Typically created by temporary poles or traffic cones rather than a permanent fence. Like traditional lunging, the Reverse Round Pen allows the trainer to work at a distance and ask for faster gaits from the horse while staying at the center. Among many applications, the RRP can be used for foundational work such as balance, tempo, rhythm and lateral movements, leading to undersaddle exercises like shoulder-in and jumping.

Secondary Reinforcer – a term used in learning theory to describe a neutral stimulus that is conditioned to mean something to an animal by pairing it with a primary reinforcer. Also called a marker or a bridge signal. In the Pavlov example, the bell is the neutral stimulus that was paired with the delivery of food to become a secondary reinforcer for his dogs.

Send To Target – when a trainer cues the horse to move away from the trainer to seek out and touch a target. The cue may be a movement such as pointing to the target or a verbal cue or both.

Shaping – the training process of breaking a behavior into smaller pieces or increments, rewarding each step and gradually increasing the criteria to reach the goal behavior.

Stimulus – Anything that elicits a sensory or behavioral response from an animal. This is a term derived from Learning Theory which can seem confusing because it is applied in different circumstances. A learned cue is a stimulus, but so is a loud noise that makes you startle. We try not to use this term often, at least not without making it clear how we’re applying it!

Stimulus Control (also Cue Control) – when a behavior is performed only on cue, and not performed in the absence of the cue. This is one of those cases where scientific terminology has persisted into training terminology. Just think of it as Cue Control!

Target – a tool that pinpoints a specific location for an animal to orient to, follow or touch. This could be a trainer’s hand, a handheld buoy, a buoy on a stick inside a traffic cone, a mat, or any number of other objects used to elicit targeting behavior.

Threshold – This term refers to the learner’s level of arousal. If the animal is below threshold, it is able to think and learn. If the animal is above threshold, it is only able to react (fight, flight, or freeze).